Biotechnology in Agriculture and Industry
2. Biotechnology in Animal Production
Learning outcomes
- I can explain how biotechnology is used in animal agriculture.
- I can describe selective breeding and genetic technologies.
- I can identify applications that improve productivity and health.
- I can evaluate ethical issues in animal biotechnology.
- I can assess the impact of biotechnology on food production.
Humans have been changing domesticated animals for thousands of years. Farmers selected animals with useful characteristics and bred them so that these traits became more common over generations.
Modern biotechnology expands the range of tools available. Animal agriculture can now use technologies involving reproduction, DNA analysis, genetic selection, cloning, genetic engineering, vaccines, and disease diagnosis.
These technologies may help farmers improve:
- animal health
- disease resistance
- growth
- reproduction
- milk or egg production
- food quality
- efficiency
However, greater control over animal biology also raises important questions about animal welfare, genetic diversity, environmental effects, cost, ownership, and ethics.
What Is Animal Biotechnology?
Animal biotechnology is the use of biological knowledge, organisms, cells, reproductive technologies, or genetic techniques to improve or modify animals and animal production.
It includes both older and newer technologies.
Examples include:
- selective breeding
- artificial insemination
- embryo transfer
- DNA testing
- marker-assisted selection
- genomic selection
- cloning
- genetic engineering
- gene editing
- vaccines
- diagnostic tests
Not all biotechnology involves directly changing DNA.
For example, artificial insemination is a reproductive biotechnology but does not genetically engineer the animal.
Why Use Biotechnology in Animal Agriculture?
Farmers need animals that remain healthy and produce food efficiently.
Desired characteristics may include:
- disease resistance
- fertility
- rapid growth
- efficient feed conversion
- high milk production
- high egg production
- good meat quality
- tolerance of environmental conditions
A simplified goal is:
identify useful characteristic
↓
identify animals carrying it
↓
increase the frequency of that characteristic
↓
improve future populations
Modern biotechnology can make this process more precise.
Selective Breeding
Selective breeding is the process of choosing animals with desirable characteristics and breeding them so that their offspring are more likely to inherit those characteristics.
Humans have used selective breeding for thousands of years.
Suppose a farmer wants cattle with high milk production.
The farmer might:
measure milk production
↓
identify high-producing animals
↓
select them as parents
↓
breed selected animals
↓
evaluate offspring
↓
select best offspring
↓
repeat
Over many generations, alleles associated with desired characteristics may become more common.
Selective Breeding Is Artificial Selection
Recall that natural selection occurs when environmental conditions influence which organisms survive and reproduce.
In artificial selection, humans influence reproductive success.
Natural Selection
environment → differential reproductive success
Artificial Selection
humans select desired traits → selected animals reproduce more
Both processes change the genetic composition of populations over generations.
The major difference is what creates the selection pressure.
Traits Used in Selective Breeding
Farmers may select animals based on characteristics such as:
Dairy Cattle
- milk production
- milk composition
- fertility
- disease resistance
- longevity
Beef Cattle
- growth
- meat characteristics
- feed efficiency
Chickens
- egg production
- growth
- disease resistance
Sheep
- wool characteristics
- growth
- reproduction
Pigs
- growth rate
- litter characteristics
- feed efficiency
- meat quality
Modern breeding programs usually consider several characteristics at once, rather than simply maximizing one trait.
Genetics and Selective Breeding
Phenotype is influenced by both genes and environment.
A simplified relationship is:
phenotype = genetic influences + environmental influences
For example, milk production may depend on:
- genetics
- nutrition
- disease
- age
- housing
- management
Therefore, observing that one cow produces more milk than another does not automatically prove that the difference is entirely genetic.
Good breeding programs need to separate genetic influences from environmental effects as much as possible.
Artificial Insemination
Artificial insemination (AI) involves collecting sperm from a selected male and introducing it into the reproductive system of a female without natural mating.
This allows one genetically valuable male to produce offspring with many females.
Advantages can include:
- faster spread of desirable genetics
- easier movement of genetic material
- reduced need to transport breeding males
- controlled breeding
- access to genetics from distant animals
Semen can also be frozen and stored.
Artificial Insemination and Genetics
Imagine a bull has characteristics that farmers consider highly desirable.
Through natural mating, the number of offspring he could produce would be limited.
With artificial insemination:
one selected male
↓
semen collected
↓
semen divided and stored
↓
many females inseminated
↓
many offspring
This can rapidly increase the genetic contribution of selected animals.
However, widespread use of relatively few males can also reduce genetic diversity.
Embryo Transfer
Another reproductive biotechnology is embryo transfer.
Instead of increasing the reproductive contribution of a selected male, embryo transfer can increase the number of offspring produced from a selected female.
A simplified process is:
selected female produces eggs
↓
eggs fertilized
↓
embryos develop
↓
embryos collected
↓
embryos transferred to recipient females
↓
recipient females carry pregnancies
The offspring are genetically related to the animals that supplied the egg and sperm—not to the recipient female that carries the pregnancy.
Why Use Embryo Transfer?
A high-quality breeding female normally produces relatively few offspring during her lifetime.
Embryo transfer can allow her genetics to contribute to more offspring.
Possible advantages include:
- faster genetic improvement
- movement of valuable genetics between herds
- preservation of valuable genetic lines
However, the technology requires:
- specialist knowledge
- careful reproductive management
- veterinary involvement
- additional cost
In Vitro Fertilization
In vitro fertilization (IVF) involves fertilizing an egg outside the animal's body.
in vitro means approximately:
"in glass" or in laboratory conditions
A simplified process is:
eggs collected
↓
sperm collected
↓
fertilization in laboratory
↓
embryo develops
↓
embryo transferred to recipient
IVF and embryo technologies can accelerate breeding programs and help preserve valuable genetics.
DNA Testing
Traditional breeding relies heavily on observable characteristics and family records.
Modern breeding can also examine an animal's DNA.
DNA testing can help identify genetic variants associated with characteristics such as:
- disease resistance
- milk characteristics
- growth
- fertility
- inherited disorders
This can allow selection decisions to be made earlier in an animal's life.
Genetic Markers
A genetic marker is an identifiable DNA sequence associated with a particular location in the genome.
Suppose researchers discover that a particular DNA marker is strongly associated with increased resistance to Disease X.
Farmers could test young animals for that marker.
Instead of waiting to observe whether each animal develops the desired phenotype:
DNA sample
↓
genetic marker identified
↓
breeding value estimated
↓
breeding decision made
This can make selection faster and more precise.
Marker-Assisted Selection
Marker-assisted selection uses genetic markers linked to useful traits to help select breeding animals.
Importantly, the animals are not necessarily genetically engineered.
Humans are selecting among genetic variants that already exist in the population.
Therefore:
DNA testing ≠ genetic modification
This distinction is important.
Genomic Selection
Many economically important characteristics are influenced by many genes.
Examples include:
- growth
- fertility
- milk production
- feed efficiency
Instead of examining only one genetic marker, scientists can analyze large numbers of markers across the genome.
This approach is called genomic selection.
A simplified process is:
DNA sample
↓
thousands of genetic markers analyzed
↓
data compared with large reference population
↓
genomic breeding value estimated
↓
animals selected
This allows breeders to estimate genetic potential before many traits can be directly measured.
Preventing Inherited Disorders
DNA testing can also identify harmful inherited variants.
Suppose an inherited disease occurs when an animal receives two copies of a harmful recessive allele.
Genotypes might be:
AA = unaffected
Aa = unaffected carrier
aa = affected
A carrier animal may appear completely healthy.
DNA testing can identify carriers before breeding.
Breeders can then design matings that reduce the probability of producing affected offspring.
Worked Genetic Example
Two carrier cattle are bred:
Aa × Aa
Possible offspring:
| A | a | |
|---|---|---|
| A | AA | Aa |
| a | Aa | aa |
Expected probabilities:
- 25% AA
- 50% Aa
- 25% aa
Therefore, each offspring has a:
25% probability of being affected
Genetic testing can help breeders avoid high-risk pairings.
Biotechnology and Animal Health
Improving animal production does not only mean making animals grow faster.
Keeping animals healthy is also essential.
Biotechnology contributes through:
- vaccines
- diagnostic tests
- genetic disease testing
- pathogen detection
- disease-resistant breeding
Healthy animals can mean:
- lower mortality
- improved welfare
- more efficient production
- reduced disease transmission
- reduced economic losses
Vaccines
Vaccination can protect livestock against infectious diseases.
Vaccines expose the immune system to appropriate antigens so that immune memory develops.
Later exposure to the pathogen can trigger a faster immune response.
A simplified sequence is:
vaccination
↓
antigen recognized
↓
adaptive immune response
↓
memory cells produced
↓
later infection
↓
faster immune response
Modern biotechnology can be used to develop and manufacture veterinary vaccines.
Diagnostic Biotechnology
Rapidly identifying a disease can help farmers prevent its spread.
Diagnostic technologies can detect:
- pathogen DNA
- pathogen RNA
- antigens
- antibodies
For example, PCR can amplify specific DNA sequences.
This can allow very small amounts of pathogen genetic material to be detected.
Early diagnosis can support:
- isolation
- treatment
- vaccination strategies
- movement controls
- disease surveillance
Disease-Resistant Animals
Scientists and breeders may attempt to increase disease resistance through:
- selective breeding
- genomic selection
- genetic engineering
- gene editing
Disease-resistant animals could potentially:
- experience fewer infections
- require fewer treatments
- suffer less disease
- produce food more reliably
However, disease resistance is often biologically complex and may involve many genes plus environmental factors.
Genetic Engineering
Genetic engineering involves deliberately modifying an organism's genetic material.
A genetically engineered animal may contain:
- an introduced gene
- a modified gene
- a deleted genetic sequence
- an edited DNA sequence
Possible goals include:
- disease resistance
- improved product characteristics
- environmental benefits
- altered growth
- production of useful biological substances
Gene Editing
Technologies such as CRISPR allow scientists to make targeted changes to DNA.
A simplified process is:
target DNA sequence identified
↓
editing system directed to sequence
↓
DNA altered
↓
cells or embryos develop
↓
animals carrying desired edit identified
Gene editing can sometimes reproduce a genetic variant that could theoretically arise naturally or through breeding, but it can do so much more directly.
Example: Disease Resistance
Imagine scientists identify a gene that a virus uses to enter pig cells.
If a particular change to that gene prevents viral entry without seriously harming the animal:
gene edited
↓
cell receptor changes
↓
virus has difficulty entering cells
↓
disease susceptibility may decrease
This could potentially improve:
- animal health
- welfare
- production reliability
However, researchers would need to evaluate whether the genetic change causes other unintended biological effects.
Genetically Engineered Salmon
One well-known example of genetically engineered food animals involves salmon engineered for altered growth characteristics.
Genetic modifications can alter regulation of growth-related genes, allowing the fish to reach market size more rapidly under controlled production conditions.
Potential advantages include:
- shorter production time
- improved production efficiency
Potential concerns include:
- containment
- ecological effects if animals escape
- animal welfare
- consumer acceptance
Environmental Containment
Genetically modified animals may create environmental concerns if they escape into natural ecosystems.
For aquaculture, scientists may ask:
- Could the animal survive?
- Could it reproduce?
- Could it compete with wild populations?
- Could modified genes enter wild populations?
- How effective are containment systems?
Risk depends on both:
hazard
and
probability of exposure
A modified animal cannot affect a wild population if there is no realistic pathway for interaction.
Cloning
Cloning can produce animals with nearly identical nuclear genetic material.
One technique is somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT).
Dolly the sheep became a famous example of an animal produced using this technique.
Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer
A simplified SCNT process is:
body cell taken from donor
↓
nucleus removed
↓
egg cell obtained
↓
egg nucleus removed
↓
donor nucleus inserted into egg
↓
cell stimulated to divide
↓
embryo develops
↓
embryo transferred to surrogate
↓
offspring develops
The offspring has nuclear DNA that is very similar to the nucleus donor.
Is a Clone Completely Identical?
Not necessarily.
Even animals with extremely similar nuclear DNA can differ because of:
- environmental conditions
- development
- gene expression
- epigenetic changes
- mitochondrial DNA
- random biological variation
Therefore:
same nuclear genome ≠ perfectly identical organism
This is similar to identical twins, who can develop biological and behavioural differences despite very similar genomes.
Why Clone Livestock?
Possible reasons include:
- reproducing animals with valuable genetics
- preserving rare genetic lines
- research
- producing breeding animals
However, cloning has significant limitations.
These can include:
- low efficiency
- high cost
- pregnancy loss
- developmental abnormalities
- animal welfare concerns
Cloning is therefore very different from simply "photocopying" an animal.
Biotechnology and Milk Production
Selective breeding and genomic selection have contributed to major changes in dairy production.
Breeders can select for characteristics including:
- milk volume
- fat content
- protein content
- fertility
- udder health
- longevity
However, maximizing production alone can create problems.
A breeding program must consider whether higher production is associated with changes in:
- fertility
- metabolic stress
- disease susceptibility
- lifespan
- welfare
This is why modern breeding programs often use multi-trait selection.
Biotechnology and Meat Production
Animal biotechnology can also influence meat production.
Breeding programs may target:
- growth rate
- muscle development
- feed conversion
- meat quality
- disease resistance
Feed conversion efficiency describes how effectively an animal converts feed into useful growth or animal products.
More efficient animals may require less feed for the same amount of production.
Why Feed Efficiency Matters
Suppose:
Animal A
Consumes 6 kg of feed to produce a particular amount of growth.
Animal B
Consumes 4 kg of feed for the same growth.
Animal B has greater feed efficiency.
Improved feed efficiency could potentially reduce:
- feed costs
- land needed for feed crops
- resource use
- waste production
However, selection for efficiency must still consider animal health and welfare.
Biotechnology and Egg Production
Poultry breeding has produced chickens specialized for different purposes.
Layers
Selected primarily for egg production.
Broilers
Selected primarily for meat production.
Modern breeding programs can use:
- pedigree information
- performance measurements
- genomic data
to select animals.
As with other livestock, very strong selection for production characteristics can create welfare trade-offs if health traits are not also considered.
Animal Welfare
Animal welfare refers to the physical and mental well-being of animals.
This is one of the most important ethical issues in animal biotechnology.
Questions include:
- Does the technology cause pain?
- Does it increase disease risk?
- Does it affect normal behaviour?
- Does increased production place physiological stress on the animal?
- Are experimental procedures invasive?
- Does the technology improve health?
A biotechnology can sometimes improve one aspect of welfare while creating concerns in another.
Productivity vs Welfare
Imagine selective breeding increases growth rate by 20%.
However, rapidly growing animals experience more skeletal problems.
Is increased production alone enough to call the breeding program successful?
No.
Evaluation should include:
production + health + welfare + lifespan + environmental impact + economics
This illustrates why agricultural efficiency cannot be evaluated using only one measurement.
Biotechnology Can Improve Welfare
Biotechnology is not automatically harmful to animal welfare.
For example, it may help:
- prevent inherited disorders
- increase disease resistance
- detect infections earlier
- reduce painful diseases
- improve vaccine effectiveness
Therefore, the ethical question is not simply:
"Was biotechnology used?"
Instead ask:
How does this particular technology affect the animals involved?
Genetic Diversity
Strong selection can reduce genetic diversity.
Imagine thousands of animals descend from a relatively small number of highly selected parents.
Genes associated with desirable characteristics may become common.
But other genetic variation can be lost.
Low genetic diversity can potentially increase:
- inbreeding
- inherited disorders
- vulnerability to new diseases
- difficulty adapting to environmental change
Genetic diversity is therefore an important resource.
Inbreeding
Inbreeding occurs when closely related individuals reproduce.
Related animals are more likely to carry copies of the same alleles inherited from shared ancestors.
This increases the probability that offspring receive two copies of harmful recessive alleles.
Possible consequences include:
- inherited disorders
- reduced fertility
- reduced survival
- reduced genetic diversity
Breeding programs therefore track relatedness and manage mating carefully.
Preserving Genetic Resources
Biotechnology can also help preserve diversity.
Genetic material can be stored through:
- frozen semen
- frozen embryos
- preserved cells
This is called cryopreservation.
Genetic banks can preserve material from:
- rare breeds
- valuable breeding animals
- threatened populations
This genetic material may be useful in future breeding programs.
Environmental Effects
Animal agriculture affects the environment through:
- land use
- feed production
- water use
- manure
- greenhouse gas emissions
- nutrient pollution
Biotechnology can potentially alter some of these impacts.
For example, improved feed efficiency could mean:
less feed per unit of food produced
which may reduce some resource requirements.
However, the overall environmental impact depends on the entire production system.
Biotechnology and Food Production
One goal of agricultural biotechnology is to produce food more efficiently.
Potential effects include:
Higher Productivity
More milk, meat, or eggs may be produced from a given number of animals.
Reduced Disease Losses
Healthier animals may survive and produce more reliably.
Improved Feed Efficiency
Less feed may be required per unit of production.
Improved Food Characteristics
Breeding or genetic technologies may alter composition or quality.
More Reliable Production
Disease resistance may reduce unpredictable losses.
Does Higher Productivity Always Mean More Food?
Not necessarily.
Food availability also depends on:
- transportation
- storage
- processing
- prices
- distribution
- food waste
- consumer demand
Increasing animal productivity can contribute to food production, but it does not automatically solve problems of food insecurity.
Food Security
Food security involves reliable access to sufficient, safe, nutritious food.
Animal biotechnology may contribute by:
- reducing disease losses
- increasing efficiency
- improving reproductive success
- increasing production
But food security is also influenced by:
- poverty
- conflict
- climate
- infrastructure
- trade
- distribution
Biotechnology is therefore one component of a much larger food system.
Economic Considerations
Biotechnology can create economic benefits but also costs.
Potential benefits include:
- improved production
- lower disease losses
- reduced feed costs
- improved breeding efficiency
Potential costs include:
- genetic testing
- reproductive technologies
- veterinary services
- patented technologies
- specialist equipment
Access may differ between:
- large commercial farms
- small farms
- wealthy countries
- lower-income regions
Ownership and Patents
Some biotechnology inventions can be patented.
This may include particular:
- genetic technologies
- breeding tools
- engineered genetic changes
- diagnostic technologies
Patents can encourage investment in research by allowing companies to recover development costs.
However, they can also raise questions about:
- ownership
- licensing
- cost
- farmer access
- market concentration
These are economic and social issues rather than simply questions of genetics.
Ethical Questions
Animal biotechnology raises several different ethical questions.
Animal Welfare
Does the technology improve or harm the animal's quality of life?
Genetic Modification
Should humans deliberately alter animal genomes for agricultural purposes?
Cloning
Are the benefits sufficient to justify procedures that may have low success rates or welfare concerns?
Genetic Diversity
Could intensive selection make livestock populations less genetically diverse?
Environmental Impact
Could genetically altered animals affect ecosystems?
Ownership
Who controls patented genetic technologies?
Food Choice
How should consumers be informed about how food was produced?
Different people may weigh these concerns differently.
Evaluating an Animal Biotechnology
A useful framework is to examine several dimensions.
1. Animal Health
Does it reduce or increase disease?
2. Animal Welfare
How does it affect pain, stress, behaviour, and quality of life?
3. Productivity
Does it improve production?
4. Food Safety
Is the resulting food appropriately assessed?
5. Environmental Impact
Does it change resource use, pollution, or ecological risk?
6. Genetic Diversity
Could it increase inbreeding or reduce genetic variation?
7. Economics
Who receives the benefits and who pays the costs?
8. Ethics
Are the procedures and outcomes considered acceptable?
Worked Example 1: Selective Breeding
A farmer has five dairy cows producing:
- Cow A: 20 L/day
- Cow B: 24 L/day
- Cow C: 31 L/day
- Cow D: 18 L/day
- Cow E: 29 L/day
Should the farmer automatically select Cow C for breeding?
Answer
Not necessarily.
Milk production is useful information, but the farmer should also consider:
- health
- fertility
- age
- genetics
- milk composition
- longevity
- environmental influences
Good breeding decisions consider multiple traits.
Worked Example 2: DNA Testing
A healthy bull carries one copy of a recessive allele for a serious inherited disease.
A cow also carries the allele.
Should their healthy appearance be enough to conclude that the mating is safe?
Answer
No.
Both are:
Aa
Crossing:
Aa × Aa
creates a 25% probability of aa offspring for each pregnancy.
DNA testing provides information that cannot necessarily be obtained by looking at the animals.
Worked Example 3: Genomic Selection
A farmer wants to select young cattle for milk production.
Why might genomic selection be useful before the animals begin producing milk?
Answer
DNA markers can provide information about the animal's likely genetic potential.
This allows breeders to estimate breeding value earlier rather than waiting years for direct production records.
Worked Example 4: Gene Editing
Scientists produce pigs with a genetic change that substantially reduces susceptibility to an important viral disease.
What evidence should be examined before widespread agricultural use?
Answer
Scientists should investigate:
- disease resistance
- unintended genetic effects
- animal health
- reproduction
- welfare
- food safety where relevant
- environmental effects
- inheritance of the modification
- long-term performance
Evidence of disease resistance alone is not sufficient for a complete evaluation.
Worked Example 5: Productivity vs Welfare
A new chicken line reaches market size 15% faster.
However, studies show an increased frequency of leg problems.
Should production efficiency be the only factor considered?
Answer
No.
A balanced evaluation should consider:
benefit: faster growth and potentially reduced resource use
against:
cost: increased health and welfare problems
Other breeding strategies might achieve improved efficiency while reducing the welfare trade-off.
Common Mistakes
Mistake 1: "Biotechnology always means genetic engineering."
No.
Biotechnology also includes reproductive technologies, vaccines, diagnostics, tissue culture, and DNA-based selection.
Mistake 2: "Selective breeding and genetic engineering are the same."
Both alter genetic characteristics across populations, but the methods are different.
Selective breeding chooses which existing animals reproduce.
Genetic engineering directly modifies genetic material.
Mistake 3: "DNA testing genetically modifies the animal."
Testing DNA does not change the DNA.
It provides information.
Mistake 4: "Artificial insemination creates genetically modified animals."
Artificial insemination changes the method of reproduction, not necessarily the animals' genes.
Mistake 5: "A clone is completely identical to the original animal."
Clones can differ because of environmental, developmental, epigenetic, and mitochondrial factors.
Mistake 6: "Higher productivity automatically means better animal agriculture."
Productivity must be considered alongside:
- welfare
- health
- sustainability
- economics
- food quality
Mistake 7: "Genetic technologies always reduce genetic diversity."
Intense selection can reduce diversity, but technologies such as cryopreservation can also help preserve genetic resources.
Mistake 8: "Disease resistance means an animal can never become sick."
Resistance generally means reduced susceptibility, not necessarily complete immunity.
Mistake 9: "Animal biotechnology is either good or bad."
Different technologies have different purposes, benefits, risks, and ethical implications.
Each should be evaluated using evidence.
Mistake 10: "More animal production automatically solves hunger."
Food security also depends on affordability, distribution, infrastructure, poverty, waste, and many other factors.
Check Your Understanding
1. Biotechnology
Define animal biotechnology and give four examples.
2. Selective Breeding
Explain how selective breeding can change a livestock population over several generations.
Use:
- variation
- selection
- reproduction
- inheritance
in your answer.
3. Reproductive Technology
Compare:
artificial insemination
and
embryo transfer.
How can each accelerate genetic improvement?
4. DNA Analysis
Explain how DNA testing can help farmers avoid inherited genetic disorders.
5. Genomic Selection
How is genomic selection different from simply choosing animals based on appearance?
Why can it allow earlier breeding decisions?
6. Animal Health
Identify three ways biotechnology can improve livestock health.
Explain how each could affect food production.
7. Cloning
Describe the basic process of somatic cell nuclear transfer.
Why is a cloned animal not necessarily completely identical to its nuclear donor?
8. Welfare
A new breed produces 20% more meat but experiences more skeletal problems.
Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of continuing to breed for this characteristic.
9. Genetic Diversity
Explain how widespread use of a small number of highly selected breeding animals could reduce genetic diversity.
Why could this become a problem?
10. Challenge
Scientists develop gene-edited cattle that:
- are substantially more resistant to an important disease
- require fewer veterinary treatments
- grow at the same rate as conventional cattle
- cost more to produce initially
- contain a heritable DNA modification
- have shown no major health problems in early studies
- have only been studied for three generations
Evaluate whether these animals should be introduced into food production.
Consider:
- animal health
- welfare
- food production
- environmental impact
- long-term evidence
- genetic diversity
- cost
- consumer choice
Identify additional evidence you would want before reaching a conclusion.
Key Terms
- Animal biotechnology – application of biological and technological methods to animals and animal production
- Selective breeding – choosing organisms with desired characteristics to reproduce
- Artificial selection – human-directed selection of inherited characteristics
- Artificial insemination (AI) – introduction of collected sperm into a female without natural mating
- Embryo transfer – transfer of an embryo into a recipient female
- In vitro fertilization (IVF) – fertilization of an egg outside the body
- Genetic marker – identifiable DNA sequence used to locate or track genetic variation
- Marker-assisted selection – use of genetic markers to help select breeding organisms
- Genomic selection – use of large numbers of genetic markers to estimate breeding value
- Breeding value – estimate of the genetic contribution an animal may pass to its offspring
- Carrier – individual possessing a recessive allele without showing the associated condition
- Genetic engineering – deliberate modification of genetic material
- Gene editing – targeted alteration of DNA
- Clone – organism with nuclear genetic material extremely similar to another organism
- Somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) – cloning technique involving transfer of a body-cell nucleus into an egg whose nucleus has been removed
- Feed efficiency – effectiveness with which feed is converted into growth or animal products
- Animal welfare – physical and mental well-being of an animal
- Genetic diversity – variety of genetic information within a population
- Inbreeding – reproduction between genetically related individuals
- Cryopreservation – preservation of biological material at very low temperatures
- Food security – reliable access to sufficient, safe, nutritious food
Key Takeaways
- Animal biotechnology includes selective breeding, reproductive technologies, DNA testing, genomic selection, vaccines, cloning, genetic engineering, and gene editing.
- Humans have used selective breeding to change domesticated animals for thousands of years.
- Artificial insemination and embryo transfer allow selected animals to contribute to larger numbers of offspring.
- DNA testing can identify useful genetic variants and carriers of inherited disorders without genetically modifying the animal.
- Marker-assisted and genomic selection can make breeding decisions faster and more precise.
- Biotechnology can improve animal health through vaccination, disease diagnosis, genetic testing, and selection for disease resistance.
- Gene editing can make targeted changes to livestock DNA, potentially affecting characteristics such as disease resistance.
- Cloning can reproduce valuable genetics but has important technical, economic, and animal-welfare limitations.
- Increased productivity can improve food production, but production should not be evaluated separately from animal health and welfare.
- Feed efficiency can reduce the resources required for a given amount of animal production.
- Intensive selection and widespread use of a small number of breeding animals can reduce genetic diversity and increase inbreeding.
- Cryopreservation and genetic banks can help preserve valuable genetic resources.
- Animal biotechnology can contribute to food security by improving health, reproduction, productivity, and efficiency, but it cannot solve food insecurity by itself.
- Ethical evaluation should consider animal welfare, genetic modification, cloning, environmental impacts, ownership, consumer choice, and access to technology.
- A technology that increases productivity is not automatically beneficial overall; its effects on health, welfare, sustainability, and society must also be considered.
- Animal biotechnology is best evaluated case by case using evidence, rather than treating all biotechnology as either beneficial or harmful.